Pius IX and the history of the Papacy of the 19th Century
Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti was a diocesan priest from Italy. He was the fifth pope of the nineteenth century, reigning from 1846-1878.
Note. This page is a work-in-progress.
CONTENTS
2. Reaction to the 1848 revolution
3. Issue of Italian Independence
5. Final Year: Prisoner of the Vatican
1. Background
1. Early Life and Career
Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti was born in 1792 to a lower noble family in the municipality of Senigallia on Italy’s Adriatic coast.
He was educated at a Catholic institution. He had medical problems such as epilepsy. He was ordained as a priest in 1819, and then served at an orphanage.
Later he was part of a diplomatic team. In 1827 he was named the Archbishop of Spoleto. Then five years later, he was named the Archbishop of Imola. In 1840 he was named a Cardinal.
Throughout his career, he remained simple and pious.
2. Historiographers
Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti was intelligent. But he was not an original thinker. He tended to heed the most recent voice he heard.
He has been extensively researched and expounded, both by admirers as well as critics. Here are a few examples:
- Farini, a moderate, emphasized his morality.
- Taxil, an anti-cleric, wrote “The Secret Loves of Pius IX,” which was untrue.
- Bellaini wrote a sappy hagiography.
- Monti used correspondence to add to the picture.
- After World War II, a Marxist named Demarko wrote on social conditions.
3. Election
Pope Gregory XVI died in 1846 of a sudden illness.
A Conclave was called. Within it, there were a variety of competing interests:
- The Roman Curia favored the hardline stances and papal absolutism of pope Gregory
- Austria wanted a Gregory-type who would continue the status quo
- France wanted greater Italian nationalism
There were four candidates:
- Two candidates were favored by church conservatives: Luigi Lambruschini, who had been the Secretary of State; and Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti.
- Two candidates were favored by church liberals: Tommaso Pasquale Gizzi and Mastai Ferretti.
After four votings, Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti was elected. He was 54 years old. There was very little excitement over his election, as he wasn’t well-known.
Looking back, the Conclave was brief. That kept grassroots-level revolts from happening within the Conclave.
4. Highlights until 1848
Pius named six Cardinals to study the situation of the papal states.
Pius issued a statement of amnesty freeing political prisoners. This was seen as a good development. It inspired people to wonder if Pius could be the leader of a drive for unification, one that would drive the Austrians out of Italy?
In 1846, Pius appointed Cardinal Tommaso Pasquale Gizzi as head of State. Gizzi rejected the notion of a constitutional government, as well as other liberal notions.
There was a bad harvest in the fall of 1846. It was the second year of bad harvests. The people of the papal states were literally hungry. They were desperate for reforms.
In November of 1846, Pius instituted some reforms. The reforms included railroads. However, Pius had no idea of how to implement the reforms. They ended up being implemented in a piecemeal fashion devoid of central orchestration.
Pius wanted clerics, not laypeople, to run the State.
Also in November of 1846, Pius promulgated his first encyclical. It was called Qui pluribus. Ostensibly it was about faith and religion. However, it included condemnations for intellectuals and communism. It commanded obedience to the Catholic church.
Six months later, in March 1847, Pius issued an edict on censorship of the Press. Journalists were forbidden from writing contempt for church leaders. The number of printing presses was no longer restricted. A new panel was to be convened to censor the work of journalists.
Pius began to form a Council of State. That was alarming to Klemens von Metternich, who was the Chancellor of the Austrian Empire.
Later, Pius organized a Council of Ministers. It was almost like a Cabinet. However, it was only staffed by prelates.
The people of the papal states wanted more reform than Pius was providing.
One seemingly random suggestion was that the Swiss Guard be replaced by a civil guard, but only if Cardinal Gizzi resign. Hearing that, Pius replaced Gizzi, naming his cousin as Head of State. This was a splendid example of nepotism.
In July of 1847 the Austrians occupied Ferrara. Their rationale was to provide stability. However, this provoked the people. They began to demonstrate against the Austrians. Thus in August, the Secretary of State complained to the Austrians. The Austrians retaliated by occupying all the forts of Rivenna.
A pamphlet war ensued. All the Italian parties involved wanted the pope to head a drive for Italian unity.
In October of 1847, Pius asked the Austrians to leave Rivenna. The Austrians said no. In response, England and France sent letters of protest to Austria.
In December of 1847, a diplomatic solution was reached. It was that Fererra and the region would be co-patrolled by both Austrian troops as well as papal troops. They would split the duties between them.
This diplomatic solution had many outcomes:
- War was avoided
- The reputation of the Austrians was tarnished
- Pius was finally seen as an actual leader, since he stood against the Austrians
Later, Pius named a group of 24 consulters. They were to be headed by Cardinal Giacomo Antonelli.
At this point, Pius was seen as saintly whilst Cardinal Antonelli was seen as evil. Both perspectives were, of course, exaggerations.
Pius did not see the consulters as a step toward a parliamentary government. They surprised him by offering unsolicited suggestions.
2. Reaction to the 1848 revolution
1. Overview
The revolutions of 1848 were also known as the springtime of the peoples or the springtime of nations. They were a series of revolutions throughout Europe from 1848 to 1849.
The revolutions were democratic and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the ancient monarchical structures and creating independent nation-states.
In the Papal States, an internal revolt ousted Pope Pius IX from his temporal powers and led to the establishment of the Roman Republic.
2. Situation in the Papal States
In a letter to the Austrian leader, Pius called the Revolution a work of God.
Pius appointed three laypeople as heads in the government of the papal states. But a strong desire remained for Pius to grant a constitutional government, as was dune in Naples and Turin.
He entertained the possibility of a constitutional government, but wanted to retain veto power, and to have the government end at the death of the pope.
Giovanni Corboli Bussi (1813-1850) said only the granting of a constitutional government would prevent a revolt.
Thus on March 10 of 1848, Pius met a consistory of Cardinals. They approved a constitutional government. On March 14 it was signed.
It expanded voting rights somewhat, finally gave some legal status to Jewish people, set up a Tricameral government consisting of the pope, Cardinals and laypeople.
Note. Tricameralism is the practice of having three legislative or parliamentary chambers.
There was a revolt against the Austrian presence in Italy. It began in Milan.
Charles Albert (1798-1849), king of Piedmont in northern Italy, received appeals for help from Milan. Then Pius wrote Charles, asking him to help Milan. Charles did indeed help Milan.
Could this be the start of the long-sought Italian unity?
On March 30 of 1848, Charles issued a proclamation that all Austrians depart and that Italians unite.
General Giovanni Durando (1804-1869) was the commanded of the papal forces. He called the war against Austria a “crusade.”
Pressure was mounting for Pius to abandon his stance of neutrality and embrace unification. Michele Viale-Prelà (1798-1860) told Pius that if he supported Albert, then Austria would abandon its ties with Rome.
Pius issued an allocution confirming his stance of neutrality. Many had hoped he would have declared his active support, so much so that cabinet resigned. People protested in the streets. Pius was surprised.
On May 2 of 1848, Pius clarified his allocution. He was in sympathy with the nationalist movement but couldn’t declare war on Austria.
On May 3 of 1848, Pius wrote to emperor Ferdinand of Austria, asking for him to leave and to turn Lombardi to over to Italy. It took a month for the court to receive the letter.
On May 4 of 1848, Pius formed a new cabinet under Count Terenzio Mamiani della Rovere (1799–1885). This was his third cabinet. Mamiani’s idea was a separation between temporal and religious authority, which Pius rejected on July 10. Thus on August 2, the Mamiani cabinet resigned.
Plus was becoming afraid. He saw more and more events spinning out of control. On August 14 he requested a few thousand French troops. France declined.
On August 15, the Piedmontese sent a man to Rome to negotiate an Alliance and Concordat with Rome. However, their effort failed.
Pius turned to Pellegrino Rossi (1787–1848) to form a new Cabinet. Rossi was harsh, dictatorial, distrusted by radials for his conservative ties, and distrusted by conservatives for his other ties. The press in Rome attacked Rossi almost immediately.
A radical figure named Pietro Sterbini planned to assassinate Rossi. He hired an assassin. The assassination was successful. That night, crowds at the house of Rossi’s widow chanted:
Blessed is the hand that stabbed the Rossi.
The murder was pinned on Gabriele Constantini, although Luigi Brunetti may have been the actual murderer.
Citizens demonstrated outside the papal palace, demanding representative government.
Cardinals and Nobles began fleeing the city. All the pope had left was his 100-man Swiss guard.
On November 17, Pius received a gift from a bishop. It was the pyx that Pius VI had carried whilst fleeing Rome.
Pius decided to flee Rome. On November 24, disguised as a priest, Pius got into a carriage and left Rome. He went to a seaside resort city called Gaeta. The king of Naples sent troops to protect Pius, and arrived in-person.
3. Pius IX in Gaeta
Cardinal Giacomo Antonelli (1806–1876) was with Pius through all the above. In return, Pius named Antonelli as Head of State. Antonelli was a political realist.
Pius sent letters to the bishops, asking for assistance.
The Piedmontese government was in communication with the revolutionary government in Rome. It turned out that the revolutionary government in Rome wanted to meet Pius.
However, the Roman Curia that had gathered in Gaeta with Pius hated the revolutionary government.
The revolutionary government was trying to get elections started. But Pius said anyone who voted in an election would be excommunicated. In the elections, a quarter of a million people voted! With that, Pius realized he wasn’t as beloved as he thought.
The newly-elected government in Rome wanted to form a democracy. It also wanted to declare the pope’s temporal powers null and void, but protect his spiritual power.
These developments can summed up like this:
The pope lost the papal states. Would he loose Rome as well?
Pius issued a protest against the new Roman Republic. He sent requests to other nations in Europe that they help him recover his temporal power. Those requests went to Spain, France, Austria, and Naples.
Considering his request, those nations wanted a conference to coordinate their endeavors. Louis of France wanted to take advantage of this situation for his own political advantage.
4. Return to Rome
On April 23 of 1849, French troops landed in Rome. But a delay ensued due to political maneuvering by French politicians. Then on June 3, France resumed their attack. They conquered the city by June 30 of 1849.
Pius received the “keys to the city” in July. But he didn’t return to Rome right away.
Pius had written to Cardinal Luigi Lambruschini (1776-1854) that he would not restore the constitution. The Archbishop of Paris wrote Pius saying constitutions are fine, whilst another Cardinal thought the people of Rome were too immature for a constitutional government.
Pius feared that a liberal government would lead to a loss of faith.
Before his return, Pius sent some Cardinals into Rome to setup some initial policies. The French thought Pius was too harsh. They wanted general amnesty to be issued.
Finally Pius issued a document setting up the new government:
- The new government was highly centralized
- Over 3,300 people were charged with crimes against the papal states
- About two-thirds of those people were acquitted
- Twenty-thousand people left the city of Rome
All that said, Pius still delayed his return to Rome:
- Security was low
- The French needed his attention
- Pius needed to borrow $40 million
- For that loan, Pius went to the Rothschild banking family in France; they were Jewish
Finally in 1850 Pius returned to Rome. Rome’s reception was very muted.
Yes, Pius had recovered his temporal authority. But no, he had alienated the hearts and minds of the entire Italian people.
Plus the issue of Italian independence continued.
3. Issue of Italian Independence
1. The Kingdom of Piedmont
Camillo Benso was the Count of Cavour.
He became the prime minister of Piedmont. His theme was a free church in a free state. However, monasteries were suppressed, education was controlled, and Jesuits were expelled. In other words, the state over the church.
Benso wanted to fight against Austria, so he looked for allies in England and France. He found himself needing to manipulate Napoleon. That was the exact thing Pius was trying to do at the very same moment.
Napoleon leaned toward Benso in 1856, saying he would be willing to intervene on behalf of Italian liberation.
In 1859 there was a war between Austria and Piedmont. It ended in Piedmont’s favor. Napoleon made a separate peace treaty with the Austrians.
Piedmont took control of Lombard, but the Austrians still held some land.
By 1860 Garabaldi invaded Naples and Sicily and conquered them. He took the papal states and defeated the army.
In March of 1861, Victor Emmanuel was declared the king of Italy. The papal territory was reduced to some land on the periphery of Rome.
King Victor Emmanuel wanted Rome to be the capital of Italy. However, Pius refused:
- Pius saw the king as a thief
- Pius saw the new government in flux
- The new government would not compensate Pius
- Pius would not be granted temporal authority
Even if Pius were to retain his temporal authority, he would not be able to defend the papal territory against an army.
In 1862 a pro-pope contingent tried to take Rome. However, they failed.
By 1864 Napoleon was frustrated with the policies of Pius. Thus Napoleon agreed to withdraw his troops from Rome, as long as the king of Italy would stay out of Rome.
Pius was angry. He called for volunteers from Catholic countries to enlist in the papal army. Pius had new leaders for the papal army. They wanted to modernize the army, and they did heavy recruiting.
However, other papal people looked down on the whole “papal army” venture and favored negotiations.
In October of 1867, the French withdrew their troops. Garabaldi again attempted to seize the city of Rome. However, he was captured and imprisoned.
Napoleon was tired of defending the papal territories. But he couldn’t afford the political backlash in France if he withdrew.
In September of 1870, the Prussians were on the move. France declared war on the Prussions. For that reason, Napoleon needed to withdraw his troops from Rome.
That month, Napoleon III was defeated and captured at Sadan. With that, there was no government in France.
Nine days later, Victor Emmanuel warned Pius that he would seize Rome but promised to protect the papacy. The pope could keep the Lateran and the Leonine city, but there would be liberalization.
Pius rejected it all.
For that reason, 60,000 Italian troops invaded the papal states.
This was happening during the First Vatican Council.
Antonelli told Pius to not show any sign of resistance.
On September 2 of 1870, the Italian army breeched the walls of Rome. The papal army surrendered.
After close to fifteen centuries, the temporal power of the pope finally ended.
2. Loss of Temporal Power
Pius stayed at the Vatican. He called himself a “Prisoner of the Vatican.”
It had been clear that the papal government had been derelict for a long time. The papal states were a fortress of isolation from the political currents sweeping the western world. For example, human rights, democracy, women’s suffrage.
Pius had many chances to manage these issues. However, he mismanaged them. He alienated many Catholics in Italy. The papacy of Pius IX has a theme of tragedy.
In the years since then, the Catholic church has done quite well despite not owning the papal states, and without temporal authority.
4. Doctrinal Issues
1. The Immaculate Conception (1854)
Mary had held a place of high honor for centuries, going all the way back to Duns Scotus (1265 or 1266 to 1308). How to maintain the doctrine of Original Sin and yet uphold Mary, was addressed by Pius.
Why did this matter re-emerge in the 19th century?
- It was a popular belief
- Marian apparitions were popping up all over the world
- Some people thought this doctrine would be officially pronounced
- If this doctrine were announced, it would reinforce the power of the papacy
In 1848 Plus appointed a theological commission. Then in 1849 he asked the bishops of the world if it was appropriate to pronounce:
- Yes: 546
- No: 57, either because it was inopportune or because it couldn’t be done
On December 8 of 1854 Pius promulgated the dogma of the Immaculate Conception. He did this, not in the context of an Ecumenical Council. Rather, he did it through the mail. He mailed the announcement.
The doctrine of Papal Infallibility was not yet formulated, and so some people see this as a foreshadowing of Papal Infallibility.
The document was called Ineffabilis Deus. It said the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception was revealed by God. Pius officially proclaimed that Mary was preserved free from all stain of Original Sin.
The apparitions at Lourdes seem to have affirmed this teaching. The Lady told Bernadette Soubirous:
I am the Immaculate Conception
Indeed, from a Catholic perspective, the 19th century can be seen as the century of Mary.
2. The Syllabus of Errors (1864)
In 1849, a local synod in Spoleto in Italy requested a syllabus of the prevailing errors of the day.
In 1852 Pius appointed a theological commission, headed by a cardinal. They drafted a text, and then solicited input from bishops and laypeople.
In 1860 a bishop issued a pastoral letter on such issues. Later, in 1862, the syllabus had grown to 61 items.
A draft was presented to the bishops gathered for the canonization of the Japanese martyrs. Unfortunately for the Vatican, somebody leaked it to the press and a newspaper published it.
Finally, it was promulgated in 1864.
It was extremely negative regarding the modern era. In a sense, the Syllabus drew a line in the sand regarding against modernity. Many people hated it. A few Catholics liked it.
Archbishop Spalding of Baltmore tried to smooth that fact over, by a pastoral letter contrasting the violent situation of Europe, with the peacefulness of the U.S. situation, thereby saying it didn’t really apply to the US.
Bishop Dupanloup of France feared that some governments would use the Syllabus to launch campaigns against the Catholic church. So he published a tract that proclaimed the pope
was addressing the world of the theoretical, whereas we live in the the imperfect world of reality.
He was clearly trying to find a way to make the Syllabus less incendiary. He received 600 letters congratulating him for his work.
The Syllabus of Errors was the biggest legacy of Pius IX. It clearly showed the Catholic church to be entrenched in the past and unable to engage with the world of the day.
3. Papal Infallibility (1870)
On June 29 of 1869, pope Pius called for an Ecumenical Council. It was to begin on December 8 of 1869. That was very soon.
The main issue for the Council was Papal Infallibility. Three groups soon formed around the issue:
1. The Opportunists. They wanted to pronounce this now.
2. The Inopportunists. They said now is not the right time to do this.
3. The foes, including Bishop Kenrick.
Pius ran the Council. He was completely in control.
The arguments “for” included historical matters.
The strongest argument “against” was pope Honorus I, who reigned from 625 to 638 AD.
Honorius was posthumously anathematized by the Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon.
- At first pope Honorius was anathematized for subscribing to monothelitism.
- Later, pope Honorius was anathematized for failing to end monothelitism.
The Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon condemned Honorius as a heretic. That anathema against Honorius I became one of the central arguments against the doctrine of papal infallibility.
This was a profound doctrinal error by the reigning pope. It was a clear exception to the notion of papal infallibility. If there is even just one exception, then the principle cannot hold.
The council was held by the opportunists, inasmuchas the pope wanted it.
On July 1 of 1870, a preliminary vote showed the following:
- Yes = 541 votes
- No = 8 votes
- Yes with changes = 62 votes
- Absent = 76
- Total = 687
As the final vote approached, there were many who disliked the doctrine but didn’t want to insult the pope.
During the final vote, there was a crashing thunderstorm. That said, the doctrine was passed:
- Yes = 532 votes
- No = 2 votes
- Total = 534 votes
Note that far fewer bishops participated in the final vote:
- Initial votes = 687
- Final votes = 534
This doctrine was codified as official dogma at the First Vatican Council of 1869–1870 in the document Pastor aeternus.
The notion of papal Infallibility is widely misunderstood. Many people assume the pope is incapable of error. However, papal Infallibility does not mean that whatsoever.
Papal Infallibility is profoundly limited. The pope is said to be infallible, but only when speaking ex cathedra on matters of faith and morals.
After this pronouncement of papal infallibility, a few schisms occurred. One such schism was in Germany, where a group called the “Old Catholic Church” broke off.
The authority of the Catholic church was increasingly seen as residing in the person of the pope.
In the U.S., when Bishop Kenrick arrived back in St. Louis, he received a letter from Rome. It asked him to sign a letter affirming his faith in the Council’s decision. This was probably an intimidation tactic. Rome was probably trying to intimidate him.
5. Final Year
“Prisoner of the Vatican”
A year after the declaration of papal infallibility, Pius lost the papal states. He decided to not leave the Vatican again. He saw himself as a “prisoner of the Vatican.” However, it was entirely self-imposed.
King Victor Emmanuel of Italy sent a treaty proposal to Pius, suggesting the pope retain all rights as a sovereign over the Leonine City.
Note. The Leonine City is the part of the city of Rome which, during the Middle Ages, was enclosed with the Leonine Wall. It was built by order of Pope Leo IV in the 9th century. In our day, it is essentially the part of Rome that borders the Vatican city-state.
Within the Leonine City, the pope could have freedom of communication and freedom to govern. The clerical trials system would be abolished, and Italy would fund the Vatican. It was a good deal.
However, Pius rejected it. His rationale was that there was no firm guarantee that the next Italian government would not change the treaty.
In May of 1871, the new government voted in the “Law of Guarantees.” It granted much of the above. It was the “voice of the people, and it demonstrated non-hostility toward the Holy See.
However, it wasn’t until 1924 that an agreement was reached. Pius wanted a “non-expedit.” It let Italian Catholics not take oaths or hold office.
Pius told Catholics to not vote. This had the opposite effect from what Pius wanted. It served to withdraw Catholics from politics. It let the radials and anti-clerics and socialists run the nation.
6. The Kulturkampf in Germany
In Germany, the Kulturkampf was a response to the declaration of papal infallibility.
On May 14 of 1372, Otto von Bismark (1815-1898) said papal infallibility meant nobody could renegotiate a concordat with the papacy. This evoked ancient memories of Germany trying to negotiate with the papacy.
The Kulturkampf was addressing the issue of whether the Constitution of 1848 should be applied to the whole country. Otto von Bismark wanted to change the constitution to take away the privileges of the Catholic church with regard to Catholic schools. They should be subject to state control.
Several religious orders were banned from Germany. The office of the Catholic Military bishop was abolished.
Adalbert Falk (1827–1900) was the Minister of Cults. He guided the authority of these laws. Like von Bismark, he also wanted clerical education to be governed by the State.
von Bismark ordered that German be the only language taught in Poland.
In 1875, the Catholic press was abolished. Three bishops were imprisoned, and Cathedral chapters were ordered to vote successors. Clergy began to be exiled.
By 1817, nine dioceses in Germany did not have a bishop.. Over a thousand parishes lacked a pastor. All seminaries were closed.
German Catholics protested by means of the “Centre Party,” which was headed by Ludwig Windthorst (1812-1891).
A wave of German Catholics fled to the United States.
Thus Pius watched the fall of the papal states, and now watched Catholic life in Germany dissolve.
7. Conclusions
At the beginning of his reign, Italians hoped Pius IX would lead them to Unification. However, he further divided the nation and alienated most of the people in Italy.
His ill-advised experiment with government revisions led to a riot that forced him out of the city of Rome.
Pius lost the papal states then watched Catholicism in Germany dissolve.
Like most of the Catholic hierarchy of this day, Pius IX was unable to imagine a Catholic church that was not the secular ruler. He was unable to imagine a Catholic church that did not exact taxes from citizens. His papal ministry was mostly centered on Italy.
The actions of Pius IX demonstrate that he was committed to maintaining the power and wealth of the papacy, even at the cost of the hopes and dreams of his own people:
- The betterment of the people
- The betterment of the nation
- Th unification of Italy
- Human rights
- Democracy
- Women’s Suffrage
“Romanization” began to creep in. People around the world began to believe:
- The best education for clerics could only take place in Rome
- The best devotional practices were the devotional practices of Rome
Despite the disastrous outcome of his papacy, many bishops remained loyal to Pius. But for the broader society, the papacy of Pius IX demonstrated that the Catholic church is hostile to the Modern World.
19th CENTURY PAPACY
MAJOR ERAS:
- Prelude to the 19th Century Papacy – the Political Factors
- Prelude to the 19th Century Papacy – the Religious Factors
- The Papacy of Pius VII: 1800-1823
- The papacy of Leo XII: 1823-1829
- The papacy of Pius VIII: 1829-1830
- The papacy of Gregory XVI: 1831-1846
- The papacy of Pius IX: 1846-1878
- The papacy of Leo XIII: 1878-1903
SEE ALSO: References, Church History
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